History
Back to NewsroomHow did the war begin?
The start of the First World War is generally accepted as 28 July 1914, following the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke, Franz Ferdinand. But how could an isolated assassination plunge the world into a deadly world war? Let’s look back at the origins of this conflict.
Historians debate the origins of the First World War, but historical context is important and can help to explain the conditions that led to war in 1914.
At the end of the 19th century, the nations of Europe were experiencing a period of economic, industrial, demographic and social expansion. The various revolutions, from the French Revolution to the springtime of the peoples in 1848, began to forge national identities, and their influence extended well beyond European borders, with the development of their empires. Despite this prosperous period for the European powers, other tensions emerged and gradually gave rise to one of the deadliest conflicts of the 20th century: the First World War.
I/ A European colonial empire under pressure
In the second half of the 19th century, control of the African continent was coveted by European nations. Several incidents occurred between the colonising nations, leading to the organisation of the Berlin Conference from November 1884 to February 1885. This conference officially divided the African continent into distinct colonies.
At the dawn of the 20th century, the European powers controlled far-reaching colonies and settlements across the world.
At the time, the European empires were the largest in the world. The British Empire (which became the Commonwealth in 1949) was the largest Empire, but France held considerable colonial power in Africa and the West Indies. Italy, Germany, Belgium and Portugal also held colonies across the world.
The conflicting ambitions and rivalries of these empires raised international tensions.
II/ A Europe of alliances
After their victory over the French in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, the German Empire now aspired to solidify its position as a world power.
Germany sought a closer relationship with its neighbour, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and, in 1882, added an alliance with Italy called the Triple Alliance. This alliance remained fragile, especially as Italy coveted the lands on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, which were held by Austria-Hungary.
At this time, Russia and France drew closer and, in 1894, concluded a Franco-Russian alliance. Britain, too, gradually grew closer to France and Russia, prompted in part by Germany’s expansion of its naval fleet as a rival to Britain’s.
‘Our future is on the water’
Tensions between France and Germany over their respective colonial ambitions were also at the root of this new closer relationship. Tensions existed between Britain and France over similar ambitions, but these had largely resolved in 1904 with the ‘Entente Cordiale’ (‘cordial agreement’). Unlike the Triple alliance, this agreement was not a formal alliance. However, it did support a stronger relationship between France and Britain. A formal miliary alliance would only be created following the outbreak of war.
The Entente Cordiale between France and Britain would later lead to the Triple Entente between France, Britain and the Russian Empire. Once again, this was not a formal military alliance but a mutual understanding of support. It was intended to counter the formal alliance that existed between Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Italy.
III/ A divided Europe
Tension between the European powers played an important role in the lead up to war. France’s defeat at Sedan in 1870 and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine left a strong resentment towards Germany in France. Furthermore, as noted, Italy looked to recover lands in the Austro-Hungarian Empire which were historically Italian speaking.
Yet the catalyst for European tensions was to be found in the Balkans. Since the 19th century, countries in this region of Eastern Europe, such as Greece, Romania or Serbia, had managed to regain a measure of independence from the Ottoman Empire
The Russian Empire saw the independence of these countries as an opportunity to consolidate Slavic and Orthodox culture and supported the sovereignty of countries like Serbia.
The Austro-Hungarians, however, saw these countries as natural parts of their own territory that should be incorporated into their own empire
“The above map brings out several interesting points with regards to the size of the Balkan States. Montenegro is only half of Wales. Bulgaria is 6000 square miles less than Scotland. Turkey in Europe a little more than half the area of Great Britain. In the matter of areas, populations and armies, the states follow the same order, but in the matter of revenue, it will be noticed that Greece exceeds Bulgaria by two and a half millions. “
The Daily Telegraph, p. 11, 19 November 1912. - ©Trove – National Library of Australia.
These conflicting ambitions were a source of increasing tension. The Austro-Hungarians administered Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was populated mainly by Serbs and Croats. The Serbs, who coveted these territories for the access to the Adriatic, found their ambitions for sovereignty frustrated, despite Russian support.
When the Ottoman Empire was driven out of the Balkans in 1912-13, the divisions left gave rise to more tensions and fuelled a strong sense of Slavic nationalism.
By 1914, the tensions in the region caused by the interests of the Russians, Austro-Hungarians, Serbs and Bulgarians have escalated to a point that it seemed only a matter of time before hostilities could break out.
IV/ The Sarajevo attack and the system of alliances in motion
It was in this context that, on 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, in Sarajevo, in occupied Bosnia.
Princip belonged to a movement advocating the creation of a Yugoslav state.
In response, the Austro-Hungarian government sent Serbia’s government a series of demands. The demands were drawn up in such a way that Serbia could not accept them. They included that Serbia accept Austro-Hungarian involvement in the suppression of Serbian dissident movements. Serbia’s acceptance of some demands and its refusal of others saw Austro-Hungary to order the bombing of the capital Belgrade on 28 July 1914.
This triggered a system of alliances. Russia, with a significant pan-Slav movement, ordered mobilisation on 30 July to defend Serbia. For Russia this did not mean immediate war – it would take considerable time to effectively mobilise their unorganised and dispersed troops. However, for Germany, it was close enough to a declaration of war and they responded by declaring war on Russia on 1 August.
Germany, however, had one war plan which involved attacking France. For this to effectively occur, they would need to go through Belgium and avoid the fortresses built along Alsace-Lorraine. Believing it could defeat France quickly and then turn to its real enemy in Russia, Germany declared war on France on 3 August 1914. France had already prepared its own general mobilisation.
Britain was observing these events closely, recognising the danger if Germany invaded Belgium. Germany’s defeat of Belgium would provide significant industrial strength and access to the English Channel. For this reason, when Germany invaded Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914.
On 11 August 1914, France and England jointly declared war on Austria-Hungary.
Italy broke with Germany and Austro-Hungary to opt for a neutral position. It would not join the Allies until 1915, in exchange for lands in Austro-Hungary in the event of victory.
The Triple Alliance, now just Germany and Austro-Hungary, turned its attention to another empire that had been sidelined since the Balkan wars, the Ottoman Empire. It joined forces with Germany and Austria-Hungary in October 1914.
The First World War was now underway.
Gradually, in the context of mobilisation, the European powers called on the resources of their colonies and territories across the world. Australia, as a British dominion, answered the call. Australia’s first major contribution to the war was at Gallipoli in the Ottoman Empire, where troops landed on 25 April 1915.
BECKER Jean-Jacques, L’Europe dans la Grande Guerre, Histoire Belin Sup, Paris, 1996.
Read more: Anzac Portal – Origins of World War I